Philosophy of Gilgamesh

The Epic of Gilgamesh is a highly refined nihilism, which describes the development of humankind, from animal to god. Gilgamesh is, as noted above, 2/3 part god and 1/3 human. The problem for him is not so much the composition of his being, but the failure to understand and take use of his possibilities as well as limitations. Gilgamesh wants to believe he is godlike, and thus do not have to face death, sadness or loneliness, as those are parts of the human fate. Therefore the gods decide to create Enkidu, as a mirror to reflect Gilgamesh and show him the true image of himself.

By closely following the development of Enkidu, we therefore also understand the development of Gilgamesh. Firstly Enkidu acts like an animal: he drinks from the river together with the herds and protects the animals from the hunters. When he has faced his true identity as a human being, he begins to understand the possibilities of being human; solving existential as well as practical problems, by finding an abstract idea and work to achieve it, by acting upon the ideal. Finally, after Enkidu dies, he realizes his actual limitation through mortality, and thus free his soul to live forever in the underworld, where he discovers the concept of eternity as a result of one's achievements during lifetime.

When examining these developments of Enkidu, we find that they correlate to the three stages of man: 1) hedonism, or the time when we're still so young that our focus and world view becomes centred around ourselves and our animalistic behaviour, 2) realism, or the time when we realize our small part as individuals in life as a whole, and that reality therefore isn't an equivalence to our ego, but that we must use our brain to create a change in the real world, 3) idealism, or the time when we accept our mortality as human beings and thus instead wish to live for the permanent things in life, which is the Ideal.

The life of Gilgamesh follows this pattern very closely: in the beginning of his time as a king, he believes he cannot die, and therefore have nothing to fear as an individual. As a result he becomes an immature and reckless leader, without being able to appreciate life for what it is, but life for what it could be. When Enkidu dies and Gilgamesh is forced to face his existential problems, he decides to travel with Urshanabi across the Ocean of Death, over to the Other Side where he will find the wisdom of life (Abzu, "The Depth"). His goal is to learn about himself and the world around him. This forms the connection between the material and ideal world, death and life.

One could see this as a process of nihilism, where all moral, ethical and utopian illusions are forced to pass through the filter of reality, until only ideas connected to truth are left. When Utnapishtim, lord of the Other Side, explains to Gilgamesh that he is not immortal - and all his attempts to take use of the secrets and possibilities open to immortality, fail - the once ruthless king now becomes a person in harmony with his inner soul. The mortal limitations, the 1/3 human part of his being, teaches Gilgamesh to not only live for the Ideal, but to accept and find meaning and beauty in reality, here and now, without sorting for the illusions that previously plagued his mind. He has become a nihilist and an idealist, loving and caring for his people and the village in which he lives.

By accepting his mortality, and thus his humanity, Gilgamesh paradoxically is able to live like a normal human being again - but at the same time fulfil his ideal as a god. For according to the ancient Sumerian texts, Gilgamesh actually becomes a god and continues to live for eternity. But an even more fascinating secret in this text is the fulfilment of the structural intent behind Gilgamesh's name. By splitting the name up into smaller words and translating them into separate concepts, then merging these together linguistically, 'Gilgamesh' translates into 'The Tree of Godlike Balance'. According to Sumerian mythology, the tree was seen as an organic connection between Earth and Sky, the life of the humans and life of the gods. The kings were often compared to a tree as in a spiritual hierarchy.

Understanding the three phases in the life of Gilgamesh, we also find a parallel to the linguistic meaning of his name: Gilgamesh is the king that rises from the earthly life and ends up becoming a god himself. He finds the connection between the material and the idealistic world; he achieves balance between ideal and reality, thus both becoming human but at the same time transcending all polarities and completing his 1/3 part to become 3/3 part god. Metaphorically we therefore see Gilgamesh as a tree, which forms a relationship between god and man, expressing idealism identical to the ancient Indo-European religion, where gods were a natural part of the reality of people.

This is a beautiful, transcendent work of prose, that much like the Edda or the Iliad, is an essential piece of read when one is up in the middle of life, looking for existential guidance, for truths and secrets, to open up a new gateway that will clear all illusions imposed on us by modern society, to free ourselves from the shackles of morality and guilt - and like Gilgamesh did - rediscover life to learn how to accept its limitations, possibilities, and inherent beauty; to learn how to live and love life as it really is.

Gilgamesh in Fate Stay Night

The Epic of Gilgamesh has inspired many works of literature, art, music, as Theodore Ziolkowski points out in his book Gilgamesh Among Us: Modern Encounters With the Ancient Epic (2011). It was only after the First World War that the Gilgamesh epic reached a wide audience, and it is only after the Second World War that it begins to feature in a variety of genres.

Besides, the epic of Gilgamesh also been animated in Fate Stay Night.

Gilgamesh

Servant Stats

Spirit: Gilgamesh

Japanese name of spirit: ギルガメッシュ

Master: Kotomine Kirei

Gender: Male Height: 182cm Weight: 68kg Hair color: Golden Eye color: Red

Alignment: Chaotic Good Agility: C Endurance: C Luck: A Mana: B N. Phantasm: EX Strength: B

Class skills: Independent Action: A+                        Magic Resistance: E

Personal skills: Charisma: A+                               Divinity: B (A+)                               Golden rule: A

Noble Phantasms: Ea: Anti-world: EX                                     Enkidu: Anti-unit: ~                                     Gate of babylon: Anti-army: E~A++

 GILGAMESH

Gilgamesh (ギルガメッシュ) is an enigmatic Archer-class Servant. He appears familiar with Fuyuki City and claims to have a past relationship with Saber. Typically clad in an ornate golden armor, he possesses an immense number of Noble Phantasms, though none are representative of his true identity.

Appearance

            Gilgamesh is a tall and dignified young man with golden hair standing up like a blazing flame. He is described as handsome with an elegant face, and his eyes, crimson like blood, are visibly not those of a human and give off a mysterious radiance that makes people wither. He has a "perfect, Golden-proportioned body" described as emanating majesty that makes flames surrounding him afraid to come close. He normally wears golden armor that makes a heavy first impression on those he encounters. He is often referred to as the "golden Archer" and the "golden-sparkling Servant," and Rider generally calls him "Goldy." Rin also calls him "goldie", but it has less to do with the color of his hair and more simply due to the fact that she thinks he looks like he is living a rich and luxurious life.

He likes to wear casual clothes, "playing attire" to ward off boredom from being in spirit from, when not in battle, such as a modern match-up of a leather jacket with furs and fashionable leather pants. He looks like a regular foreigner to both Rin and Archer, and he doesn't openly give off the impression of a Servant or Master due to his body being made of flesh after the Fourth Holy Grail War.

After drinking his potion of youth, he takes the form of a young child. He has the same blood-red eyes and golden hair that makes him stand out from others. Shirou is unable to identify him from sight, and he finds it hard to believe they're the same person even after being told.

Identity

Gilgamesh is the great half-god, half-human king that ruled the Sumerian city-state of Uruk, the capital city of ancient Mesopotamia, in the years before Christ. He was an ultimate, transcendent being so divine as to be two thirds god and one third human, and no others in the world could match him. He was a despot possessing high divinity who believed he was invincible. He is not merely a legend, and is said to have actually existed and ruled during the Sumer Dynasty five thousand years ago. He was the King of Heroes who possessed all things in the world, whose tale is recorded in mankind's oldest epic poem, the "Epic of Gilgamesh."

Gilgamesh was originally a tyrant who did not care about his people, but his behavior slowly changed after he gained a friend considered to be an equal, Enkidu. Enkidu was created by the goddess Aruru in response to the prayers of the people who suffered under Gilgamesh's oppression and tyrannical policies. He is described as a foolish and ridiculous fellow whom, despite having a body made of mud and soil, set his heart to stand shoulder to shoulder with gods. The two met as was fated, and they strongly affected each other even though Gilgamesh feared Enkidu as an enemy at first. While Enkidu was released to fight against Gilgamesh, and they met and battled as enemies, they eventually came to understand each other soon after, recognized each other as equals, and worked together to rule the country.

The two eventually defeated the Humbaba, the guardian of the forest and beast of the gods. He became the greatest and richest king on Earth, who eventually acquired all the treasure in the world. Uruk became unprecedentedly prosperous, and Gilgamesh was considered so powerful that even the gods could not ignore his existence. One goddess, Ishtar the goddess of fertility, even fell in love with Gilgamesh and proposed marriage to the perfect king. He rejected her immediately because he knew her to be a witch who was unfaithful, cruel, and the corruptor of all men. She became furious, feeling that he had insulted her, and went to her father, the god Anu, to get revenge. She persuaded him to unleash the Bull of Heaven.

The unopposable beast of the gods caused seven years of starvation and destruction on the earth. Gilgamesh and Enkidu cooperated, faced the Bull of Heaven, and they successfully defeated it after Gilgamesh bound it with the Chains of Heaven. Ishtar's reputation was once again crushed, and her fury did not abate. She complained before the Gods to give death to one of the men, as it was a sin for human to kill the beast of the gods. Her wish was granted, and since the gods created him, Enkidu could not resist the command. Due to his hubris and disrespectful arrogance that offended the gods in heaven, he suffered divine retribution that caused him to slowly weaken to death.

Gilgamesh is unable to forget the way Enkidu passed away with tears streaming down his face. He asked Enkidu "Why are you crying? Could it be that, only now, you are regretting having taken my side?", to which Enkidu responded “Who would understand you after I die? Who else would march forward by your side? My friend… when I think that you will live on all alone henceforth, I can’t help but shed tears…” As he saw Enkidu taking his last breaths, he realized that the way the man who was human but wanted to surpass humanity had lived was even more precious and more brilliant than all the treasures he had collected. His final words to Enkidu were “You fool who stretches your hand towards realms not of men… There is only one person in heaven or earth who’s worthy of appreciating your destruction, and that is none other than I, Gilgamesh. Sink into my embrace, oh you glorious and illusionary man. That is my decision.” As Enkidu's golden majestic brilliance disappeared in the night mist, there was only an evil laughter left echoing long after.

Enkidu's death began Gilgamesh's downfall. He was shocked by the fact that death could come to even a friend who was his equal, and he was tormented by the fear of this "death." He finally traveled to the underworld in search of immorality, and obtained the miraculous elixir of immortality at the end of a long journey and many hardships. A snake on his way stole it back while he was bathing. While it is said he eventually died of grief, he personally claims to Saber that immortality was nothing he needed, so he casually gave it to the snake. It is said that the snake begins its life again in a new body after shedding its skin because it stole Gilgamesh's medicine and drank it. The skin shed by the first snake in the world in ancient times was later fossilized and remained in existence for countless eons before being used as a catalyst by Tohsaka Tokiomi to summon Gilgamesh as Archer in the Fourth Holy Grail War.

Personality

Gilgamesh is extremely arrogant and selfish. He claims that everything in the world is his possession and he's the one and only king. He cannot acknowledge the authority of anyone, even from the gods. He's incredibily proud, especially of his collection of treasures. He views everyone as inferior and does not care for their feelings at all. After he saw enough of the modern world, he decided to cleanse it from humans since they have become weak and unworthy of his rule. On the course of the 4th Grail War he took interest in Saber and developed an obsession with her. In battle, he's prone to underestimate his opponents and views fights as a game of amusement. His gigantic pride prevents him from acknowledging his opponent as a real threat and he does not fight him/her seriously. As such he prefers to severely handicap himself and just mindlessly shower his incredible volume of Noble Phantasms.

After he consumes the potion of youth, he becomes a little boy. Surprisingly, the child version of Gilgamesh is well-mannered, polite and amiable, not to mention perfectly sane and rational, complelety different from his extremely haughty, rude (and sometimes irrational and violent-tempered) adult counterpart. He becomes popular and an idol among children in Fuyuki, as he is seen leading a football team with amazing leadership. In his child form, he not only retains his memory but his royal and divine charisma as well. He remembers Shirou and greets him politely. Shirou initially wonders whether he is Gilgamesh's younger brother before being corrected, though child Gilgamesh wished he had brothers and sisters, showing that he is the only son of King Lugalbanda and goddess Ninsun. He also expresses his uneasiness of how he grows up becoming someone so unpleasant, referring to his adult form's personality. He also approves of Shirou's relationship with Saber and states that Saber is not suitable for someone of his age. It is likely that the Golden King was a better person when he was a child. Seeing him with the children, Shirou wonders how Gilgamesh will eventually grow up to become someone so unpleasant.

He retains his boy alter ego and amiable personality even when he reverts back to an adult, as he is seen fishing with several of his chidren companion (dubbed Gil's Brigade) at Fuyuki Dock, along with Archer and Lancer. He is also less arrogant than usual, showing that his personality has improved greatly somehow, even though he is boasting of his superior quality fishing rods compared to Lancer's and Archer's own. At some point, he also authors a manga that called Ju-Op that one of the children eagerly asked for.

Gilgamesh had an extremely close relationship with Enkidu. He responds to Rider's request to join him as an ally by saying "It is unfortunate, but I do not require a second friend. Past and future, my companion will only be one."

Role

Gilgamesh was summoned by Tohsaka Tokiomi in the Fourth Holy Grail War. While the relic used as the catalyst looked like the broken fragment of a mummy, it was actually claimed to be the fossil of the first skin ever shed by a snake.

He dislikes the presence of Saber and Rider because they were kings like he was before they became heroic spirits. After the three Kings meeting Gilgamesh opinions on the other Kings changes especially how he develops a fascination for Saber, whom he views as weak-minded because of her ideals and desires to see her despair after he crushes them. Gilgamesh even remarked that he would be the one to kill Rider after witnessing his Noble Phantasm.

In the 4th Holy War Gilgamesh finds Tokiomi the typical boring mage and much to Tokiomi's displeasure, the arrogant and materialistic Gilgamesh has difficulty acting covertly. But he is intrigued by Kotomine Kirei's participation in the war. The Servant suggests that to overcome his emptiness, Kirei should determine backgrounds and the motivations of the other Masters and Servants as to why they wish to obtain the Holy Grail.

After Gilgamesh learns from Kirei that Tokiomi would use his last command spell to order Gilgamesh commit suicide so Tokiomi would gain the Holy Grail, Gilgamesh and Kirei would scheme together to betray his former master/mentor.

With Tohsaka's death, Gilgamesh co-operated with Kirei to obtain the Holy Grail, intending to cleanse the world of humanity, which he felt had become corrupted and vile, thus not worthy of his reign (he wanted to rule a world inhabited with strong and dignified creatures, according to the Unlimited Blade Works scenario).

Gilgamesh was responsible for delivering the deathblow to the Rider-class Servant Iskander, King of Conquerors. Though he had been at odds with the King of Conquerers, Gilgamesh expressed considerable respect for Rider, despite Gilgamesh's extreme pride. Out of respect for Iskander, he spares Waver Velvet, Rider's Master, and dismisses him for the remainder of the war.

The last two remaining Servants are Saber and Gilgamesh but out of surprise, Gilgamesh propose Saber to be his Queen however, during their final confrontation, their battle is interrupted by the destruction of the Holy Grail at the hands of Saber, forced to comply because of the commands issued by Kiritsugu via his Command Spells.

When Emiya Kiritsugu killed his Master, Gilgamesh remained in the physical world long enough to be drenched by the pollution within the tainted Holy Grail. Contact with this ichor normally corrupts a Servant's ego, but Gilgamesh resisted submission to the evil influence. However, the saturation converted his spiritual body to one of flesh and blood, and Gilgamesh also become more eccentric and excitable.

Although able to exist independently of Kotomine, Gilgamesh continued to co-operate with his old Master, which had been resurrected by the Grail's malevolent power. With Kotomine's aid, he was able to stockpile prana for his Noble Phantasms through the consumption of human souls from children orphaned by the fire at the end of the war. Gilgamesh also retrieved a potion of temporary youth from his vault that reduced his physical age and allowed him to smoothly blend in with society.

Gilgamesh is one of the antagonists in each scenario of Fate/stay night. He first appears before the start of the Fifth Holy Grail War around Sakura's house. He identifies her as “the other Grail” and comes to tell her “Go die right now.” It is just a suggestion rather than a command, as he believes that the matter will develop into some sort of entertainment regardless of the situation. When asked about the encounter, Sakura just claims that he was asking for directions and that “It was English” in order to hide the truth. In Fate, he kills Caster as she assaults Shirou's residence, and later ambushes Shirō and Saber during their date. Ultimately, he is killed in a climatic battle with Saber at the Ryuudouji Temple atop Mount Enzō. Gilgamesh is more active in Unlimited Blade Works, and reprises his role as the final antagonist; He is "lent" to Shinji Matou after Shinji's Servant, Rider, is killed by Sōichirō Kuzuki and later easily killed Ilya and Berserker. Gilgamesh attempts to use Shinji as the core of the Holy Grail, but he is killed by Archer after being cornered by Shirō. Gilgamesh has a small role in Heaven's Feel  scenario, where he lacerates Dark Sakura with Gate of Babylon. However, he underestimates her regenerative abilities and is devoured by her shadows.

In Fate/hollow ataraxia, Gilgamesh once again consumes his potion of youth, and holds a low profile in Fuyuki City to avoid interacting with previous Servants or Masters. As a child, he is extremely popular with other children, retaining his royal charisma but also affable and amiable. When Shirou reunited with this younger Gilgamesh, Shirou did not recognize him and was dumbfounded as to how Gilgamesh would eventually grow into such a haughty and selfish person. It is possible that Gilgamesh is a better person when he is still a child, or the potion he consume to revert to child affects his personality as well as his age. Furthermore, he still remembers the events in Fate/Stay Night as he recognizes Shiro and greets him politely.He also awares of his adult alter ego and wonders why he grows up becoming someone so unpleasant. During the Fuyuki eclipse, he reverts to his adult form and assists the other Servants in slaying the endless horde of Shadow Wolf Beasts, providing the opportunity for Avenger to make his way to Heaven's Feel. He also seems to retain his pleasant personality even after he turns back as adult as he is seen fishing at Fuyuki Dock with several children, with golden fishing rods that his children companions think very cool albeit being slightly silly-looking.

Fate/strange fake features another incarnation of Gilgamesh separate from the version summoned during the Fuyuki Holy Grail Wars.

Abilities

Gilgamesh is placed into the Archer class because of his main Noble Phantasm, Gate of Babylon. It grants him access to all of the world's treasures that he collected during his life, which include prototypes of other heroes' Noble Phantasms, and he can launch them as the strongest arrows towards his opponents. While he may sometimes choose to wield them as regular weapons, he mainly fights by raining down an infinite amount of weapons on his opponents. The most trusted Noble Phantasms contained within include Enkidu and Ea. While he has numerous Noble Phantasms, none are indicative of his true identity, and the only person through both Holy Grail Wars to figure out his identity without being told is Rider.

He is rarely serious while fighting, describing his going all out in hollow ataraxia as a once in a lifetime whim, and it is said he could have ended the Fourth Holy Grail War in a single night if he wished. He is extremely perceptive of magecraft, allowing him to see through Caster's fake death and tell the exact number of spells a magus is preparing just by looking at them. He is able to predict the exact number of Projections prepared by Shirou, and asks what kind of hero he would be if he could not see through a magus.

He normally wears golden armor materialized from magical energy much like Saber's armor. It is extremely strong to the point that Shirou initially assumes that it is his main Noble Phantasm. It has a strong innate Magic Resistance, and it is durable enough to block Tsubame Gaeshi and numerous strong blows from Invisible Air simply by protecting his head with his hands. While it is completely free from damage after Saber's attacks, he claims it is at its limit and that any more would be bad even if his armor doesn't give out to attacks often. Shirou believes she would have been able to slash through it if she were to relaunch her barrage of attacks.

Analysis of Major Characters

Gilgamesh

     An unstable compound of two parts god and one part man, Gilgamesh suffers most from immoderation. He is the greatest of all men, and both his virtues and his flaws are outsized. He is the fiercest of warriors and the most ambitious of builders. Yet until Enkidu, his near equal, arrives to serve as a counterweight to Gilgamesh’s restless energies, he exhausts his subjects with ceaseless battle, forced labor, and arbitrary exercises of power. Beautiful to behold, Gilgamesh selfishly indulges his appetites, raping whatever woman he desires, whether she is the wife of a warrior or the daughter of a noble—or a bride on her wedding night. Enkidu’s friendship calms and focuses him. When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh grieves deeply and is horrified by the prospect of his own death. Abruptly abandoning glory, wealth, and power, all of which are worldly aspirations that he as king had once epitomized, he begins a quest to learn the secret of eternal life. What he finds instead is the wisdom to strike harmony with his divine and mortal attributes. Reconciled at last to his mortality, Gilgamesh resumes his proper place in the world and becomes a better king.

Enkidu

     
     Hairy-chested and brawny, Enkidu begins his literary life as Gilgamesh’s faithful sidekick. In the most ancient of the stories that compose The Epic of Gilgamesh, he is a helper to Gilgamesh. As those legends evolved into chapters of a great epic poem, Enkidu’s role changed profoundly. Much more than a sidekick or a servant, he is Gilgamesh’s soul mate, brother, and equal, even his conscience. In the later stories the gods bring Enkidu into the world to provide a counterpoint to Gilgamesh. Unlike Gilgamesh, who is two-thirds god, Enkidu is fashioned entirely from clay. He begins his life as a wild man, raised by animals, and, crude and unrefined, he remains to a certain extent a sojourner in the civilized world. For example, when Gilgamesh spurns Ishtar, the goddess of love, with flowery, allusive insults, Enkidu merely hurls a piece of meat in her face. However, Enkidu is also instinctively chivalrous. He takes up arms to protect the shepherds who first give him food, and he travels to Uruk to champion its oppressed people and protect its virgin brides from their uncontrollable king. Ironically, that king is Gilgamesh. Enkidu overcomes him with friendship rather than force and transforms him into the perfect leader. Perhaps Enkidu feels Uruk’s injustices so keenly because he is such a latecomer to civilization. Though Enkidu is bolder than most men, he is also less pious than he should be. He pays dearly for the disrespect he shows to Enlil, the god of earth, wind, and air, when he urges Gilgamesh to slay Enlil’s servant Humbaba, and he incurs the wrath of Ishtar. Like all men, Enkidu bitterly regrets having to die, and he clings fiercely to life.

Utnapishtim

     
     Utnapishtim’s name means “He Who Saw Life,” though “He Who Saw Death” would be just as appropriate, since he witnessed the destruction of the entire world. The former king and priest of Shurrupak, Utnapishtim was the fortunate recipient of the god Ea’s favor. His disdain for Gilgamesh’s desperate quest for eternal life might seem ungenerous, since he himself is immortal, but Utnapishtim must carry a heavy load of survivor’s guilt. He doesn’t know why, of all the people in the world, Ea chose him to live, but he does know that he tricked hundreds of his doomed neighbors into laboring day and night to build the boat that would carry him and his family to safety while he abandoned them to their fates. What Utnapishtim gained by his trickery was a great boon for humankind, however. He received a promise from the gods that henceforth only individuals would be subject to death and that humankind as a whole would endure. When Utnapishtim tested Gilgamesh by asking him to stay awake for a week, he knew that he would fail, just as he knew that Gilgamesh wouldn’t profit from the magical plant that had the power to make him young again. Gilgamesh is one-third man, which is enough to seal his fate—all men are mortal and all mortals die. Yet since Utnapishtim “sees life,” he knows that life extends beyond the individual—that families, cities, and cultures endure.

Siduri

     Siduri is the tavern keeper who at first bars her door to Gilgamesh and then shares her sensuous, worldly wisdom with him, advising him to cherish the pleasures of this world. Though she tries to dissuade him from his quest, she tells him how to find Urshanabi the boatman, without whose help he’d surely fail. The goddess of wine-making and brewing, Siduri is only one of several sexually ripe, nurturing women who appear in this most explicitly homoerotic tale. The male characters may take these females for granted, but they nevertheless play an essential role. The temple prostitute Shamhat domesticates Enkidu. Utnapishtim’s unnamed wife softens her husband toward Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh’s mother Ninsun adopts Enkidu as her son, not only endorsing his friendship to Gilgamesh but also making him Gilgamesh’s brother. Ishtar herself, fickle and dangerously mercurial as she is as the goddess of war and love, nevertheless weeps bitterly to see how the deluge that she had helped to bring about ravaged her human children. As loudly as it celebrates male bonding and the masculine virtues of physical prowess, The Epic of Gilgamesh doesn’t forget to pay its respects to feminine qualities.

Overview of The Epic

     A general introduction to Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, who was two-thirds god and one-third man. He built magnificent ziggurats, or temple towers, surrounded his city with high walls, and laid out its orchards and fields. He was physically beautiful, immensely strong, and very wise. Although Gilgamesh was godlike in body and mind, he began his kingship as a cruel despot. He lorded over his subjects, raping any woman who struck his fancy, whether she was the wife of one of his warriors or the daughter of a nobleman. He accomplished his building projects with forced labor, and his exhausted subjects groaned under his oppression. The gods heard his subjects’ pleas and decided to keep Gilgamesh in check by creating a wild man named Enkidu, who was as magnificent as Gilgamesh. Enkidu became Gilgamesh’s great friend, and Gilgamesh’s heart was shattered when Enkidu died of an illness inflicted by the gods. Gilgamesh then traveled to the edge of the world and learned about the days before the deluge and other secrets of the gods, and he recorded them on stone tablets.

     The epic begins with Enkidu. He lives with the animals, suckling at their breasts, grazing in the meadows, and drinking at their watering places. A hunter discovers him and sends a temple prostitute into the wilderness to tame him. In that time, people considered women and sex calming forces that could domesticate wild men like Enkidu and bring them into the civilized world. When Enkidu sleeps with the woman, the animals reject him since he is no longer one of them. Now, he is part of the human world. Then the harlot teaches him everything he needs to know to be a man. Enkidu is outraged by what he hears about Gilgamesh’s excesses, so he travels to Uruk to challenge him. When he arrives, Gilgamesh is about to force his way into a bride’s wedding chamber. Enkidu steps into the doorway and blocks his passage. The two men wrestle fiercely for a long time, and Gilgamesh finally prevails. After that, they become friends and set about looking for an adventure to share.

     Gilgamesh and Enkidu decide to steal trees from a distant cedar forest forbidden to mortals. A terrifying demon named Humbaba, the devoted servant of Enlil, the god of earth, wind, and air, guards it. The two heroes make the perilous journey to the forest, and, standing side by side, fight with the monster. With assistance from Shamash the sun god, they kill him. Then they cut down the forbidden trees, fashion the tallest into an enormous gate, make the rest into a raft, and float on it back to Uruk. Upon their return, Ishtar, the goddess of love, is overcome with lust for Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh spurns her. Enraged, the goddess asks her father, Anu, the god of the sky, to send the Bull of Heaven to punish him. The bull comes down from the sky, bringing with him seven years of famine. Gilgamesh and Enkidu wrestle with the bull and kill it. The gods meet in council and agree that one of the two friends must be punished for their transgression, and they decide Enkidu is going to die. He takes ill, suffers immensely, and shares his visions of the underworld with Gilgamesh. When he finally dies, Gilgamesh is heartbroken.

     Gilgamesh can’t stop grieving for Enkidu, and he can’t stop brooding about the prospect of his own death. Exchanging his kingly garments for animal skins as a way of mourning Enkidu, he sets off into the wilderness, determined to find Utnapishtim, the Mesopotamian Noah. After the flood, the gods had granted Utnapishtim eternal life, and Gilgamesh hopes that Utnapishtim can tell him how he might avoid death too. Gilgamesh’s journey takes him to the twin-peaked mountain called Mashu, where the sun sets into one side of the mountain at night and rises out of the other side in the morning. Utnapishtim lives beyond the mountain, but the two scorpion monsters that guard its entrance refuse to allow Gilgamesh into the tunnel that passes through it. Gilgamesh pleads with them, and they relent.

     After a harrowing passage through total darkness, Gilgamesh emerges into a beautiful garden by the sea. There he meets Siduri, a veiled tavern keeper, and tells her about his quest. She warns him that seeking immortality is futile and that he should be satisfied with the pleasures of this world. However, when she can’t turn him away from his purpose, she directs him to Urshanabi, the ferryman. Urshanabi takes Gilgamesh on the boat journey across the sea and through the Waters of Death to Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh the story of the flood—how the gods met in council and decided to destroy humankind. Ea, the god of wisdom, warned Utnapishtim about the gods’ plans and told him how to fashion a gigantic boat in which his family and the seed of every living creature might escape. When the waters finally receded, the gods regretted what they’d done and agreed that they would never try to destroy humankind again. Utnapishtim was rewarded with eternal life. Men would die, but humankind would continue.

     When Gilgamesh insists that he be allowed to live forever, Utnapishtim gives him a test. If you think you can stay alive for eternity, he says, surely you can stay awake for a week. Gilgamesh tries and immediately fails. So Utnapishtim orders him to clean himself up, put on his royal garments again, and return to Uruk where he belongs. Just as Gilgamesh is departing, however, Utnapishtim’s wife convinces him to tell Gilgamesh about a miraculous plant that restores youth. Gilgamesh finds the plant and takes it with him, planning to share it with the elders of Uruk. But a snake steals the plant one night while they are camping. As the serpent slithers away, it sheds its skin and becomes young again.

     When Gilgamesh returns to Uruk, he is empty-handed but reconciled at last to his mortality. He knows that he can’t live forever but that humankind will. Now he sees that the city he had repudiated in his grief and terror is a magnificent, enduring achievement—the closest thing to immortality to which a mortal can aspire.

People & Their Characteristics

• Gilgamesh - King of Uruk, the strongest of men, and the personification of all human virtues. A brave warrior, fair judge, and ambitious builder, Gilgamesh surrounds the city of Uruk with magnificent walls and erects its glorious ziggurats, or temple towers. Two-thirds god and one-third mortal, Gilgamesh is undone by grief when his beloved companion Enkidu dies, and by despair at the prospect of his own extinction. He travels to the ends of the Earth in search of answers to the mysteries of life and death.

• Enkidu - Companion and friend of Gilgamesh. Hairy-bodied and brawny, Enkidu was raised by animals. Even after he joins the civilized world, he retains many of his undomesticated characteristics. Enkidulooks much like Gilgamesh and is almost his physical equal. He aspires to be Gilgamesh’s rival but instead becomes his soul mate. The gods punish Gilgamesh and Enkidu by giving Enkidu a slow, painful, inglorious death for killing the demon Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven.

• Shamhat - The temple prostitute who tames Enkidu by seducing him away from his natural state. Though Shamhat’s power comes from her sexuality, it is associated with civilization rather than nature. She represents the sensuous refinements of culture—the sophisticated pleasures of lovemaking, food, alcohol, music, clothing, architecture, agriculture, herding, and ritual.

• Utnapishtim - A king and priest of Shurrupak, whose name translates as “He Who Saw Life.” By the god Ea’s connivance, Utnapishtim survived the great deluge that almost destroyed all life on Earth by building a great boat that carried him, his family, and one of every living creature to safety. The gods granted eternal life to him and his wife.

• Utnapishtim’s Wife - An unnamed woman who plays an important role in the story. Utnapishtim’s wife softens her husband toward Gilgamesh, persuading him to disclose the secret of the magic plant called How-the-Old-Man-Once-Again-Becomes-a-Young-Man.

• Urshanabi - The guardian of the mysterious “stone things.” Urshanabi pilots a small ferryboat across the Waters of Death to the Far Away place where Utnapishtim lives. He loses this privilege when he accepts Gilgamesh as a passenger, so he returns with him to Uruk.

• The Hunter - Also called the Stalker. The hunter discovers Enkidu at a watering place in the wilderness and plots to tame him.

Partial List of Important Deities and Demons:

• Anu - The father of the gods and the god of the firmament.

• Aruru - A goddess of creation who fashioned Enkidu from clay and her spittle.

• Ea - The god of fresh water, crafts, and wisdom, a patron of humankind. Ea lives in Apsu, the primal waters below the Earth.

• Humbaba - The fearsome demon who guards the Cedar Forest forbidden to mortals. Humbaba’s seven garments produce an aura that paralyzes with fear anyone who would withstand him. He is the personification of awesome natural power and menace. His mouth is fire, he roars like a flood, and he breathes death, much like an erupting volcano. In his very last moments he acquires personality and pathos, when he pleads cunningly for his life.

• Scorpion-Man - Guardian, with his wife, of the twin-peaked mountain called Mashu, which Shamash the sun god travels through every night. The upper parts of the monsters’ bodies are human, and the lower parts end in a scorpion tail. They are familiar figures in Mesopotamian myth.

• Siduri - The goddess of wine-making and brewing. Siduri is the veiled tavern keeper who comforts Gilgamesh and who, though she knows his quest is futile, helps him on his way to Utnapishtim.

• Tammuz - The god of vegetation and fertility, also called the Shepherd. Born a mortal, Tammuz is the husband of Ishtar.

• Enlil - God of earth, wind, and air. A superior deity, Enlil is not very fond of humankind.

• Ereshkigal - Terrifying queen of the underworld.

• Ishtar - The goddess of love and fertility, as well as the goddess of war. Ishtar is frequently called the Queen of Heaven. Capricious and mercurial, sometimes she is a nurturing mother figure, and other times she is spiteful and cruel. She is the patroness of Uruk, where she has a temple.

• Lugulbanda - Third king of Uruk after the deluge (Gilgamesh is the fifth). Lugulbanda is the hero of a cycle of Sumerian poems and a minor god. He is a protector and is sometimes called the father of Gilgamesh.

• Ninsun - The mother of Gilgamesh, also called the Lady Wildcow Ninsun. She is a minor goddess, noted for her wisdom. Her husband is Lugulbanda.

• Shamash - The sun god, brother of Ishtar, patron of Gilgamesh. Shamash is a wise judge and lawgiver.